Genres of academic writing

Features of essays:

• A piece of writing which follows set conventions
• Usually follows a particular structure (introduction, main body, conclusion)
• Should keep very strictly to the task or question set
• You can explore a topic in detail
• Allows you to express your views
• You should engage in critical debate around the subject

Essay structure

• Introduction: explain how you interpret question (define if necessary), give a brief outline of what you will cover and in what order
• Main body paragraphs: each cover a separate issue, develop the topic, include details, evidence, references, link to next paragraph
• Conclusion: summarise argument, main themes; state conclusions, link back to title (no new information)
• References: list all the sources you have cited

Example extract:

“On the other hand, there are disadvantages which should be taken into consideration. Firstly, if a student is not able to obtain paid work, this may result in the gap year being a very expensive experience (Denton & Edwards, 2009). Another consideration is that students may lose the desire to continue their studies after experiencing work, possibly resulting in a lack of focus, forgetting important information and being educationally behind other students (Hartog, 2010).”

What is a report?

• Has a specific purpose – your assignment brief will outline this
• Written for a specific audience
• Often used in the workplace
• Well-organised in sections with headings and numbers
• There are different types, e.g. recommendation, feasibility, progress, laboratory, research, financial

Typical structure

This varies with the topic and length of the report, but a typical report based on research could be:

• Executive summary/abstract (summary of main points)
• Background (why research was necessary)
• Research methods (how research was conducted)
• Findings/results (usually includes graphs and diagrams)
• Discussion and conclusions (what the findings indicate, evaluation)
• Recommendations (possible action to take)
• Appendices (e.g. copy of a questionnaire)
• References

Example extract:

“3.1 Ellipsis

Ellipsis, ‘the deliberate omission of items…recoverable from the immediate context’ (Thornbury and Slade, 2006, 202) appears not to be present in the conversation. Perhaps, as this is an English class, the students are trying hard to create grammatically ‘correct’ utterances.

3.2 Deixis

The term ‘deixis’ is derived ‘from the Greek term for ‘finger’ and is used to mean ‘pointing with language’ (Thornbury and Slade, 2006, 203). Personal deixis is used frequently throughout the conversation, with much use of ‘I’ and ‘you’, indicating that the discussion involves issues important to the students personally. There is occasional use of ‘they’ and ‘their’, which may serve to create distance at that point.”

What is a case study?

• In-depth study of a single example (e.g. person, company, event, geographical area, technique)
• Factual, based on a real life subject
• Relates to a theoretical framework, and shows how it illustrates or contradicts the theory
• Can be used for problem analysis and to make recommendations
• CAUTION: they are specific instances, so take care if making generalisations
• You might use case studies for research, or write your own

Structure of a case study:

• Introduction (why this study? What is the situation?)
• Background reading (previous research & evaluation)
• Methodology (how and why you used particular methods, e.g. library research, interviews, historical documents…)
• Results (what you found from each method)
• Summary (compare and contrast results)
• Evaluation (in view of the background reading)
• Conclusion (summary/generalisation)
• Recommendations

(Adapted from Gillett, Hammond and Martala, 2009, 235)

Alternative structure:

• Background/introduction
• Research methods used
• Statement of the problem, issue or focus
• Any action already taken, and/or current action
• Client & others’ responses to actions taken (if any)
• Evaluation of the interaction taken/being undertaken
• Outstanding issues or problems
• Causes of outstanding issues/problems
• Possible solutions
• Evaluation of possible solutions

(Adapted from Cottrell, 2013, 365)

Example extract:

“Consider the design of the wood pencil, a simple design that hasn’t really changed, conceptually, in about 500 years. And yet, even a cursory review of its history shows that there were significant changes to the materials used, manufacturing methods, and extra features (e.g., attached erasers) over time.

Why did these changes happen?

The basic discovery behind pencils was the property of graphite – that it was so soft that it left dark marks on pretty much anything you scratched with it.

Until then, the most common writing instrument was a quill and ink, which were quite delicate. Graphite, though “soft,” was much more robust – and erasable! – than quills and inks. No one really had a problem with quills till then, because no one knew an alternative was even possible.”

You might complete this longer report in your 3rd year, or if you go on to do a master’s degree.

They usually involve doing your own research (although this could be secondary research: reading and reporting on earlier research).

They allow you to investigate a specific topic that interests you in detail.

Dissertation structure:

• Title
• Acknowledgements
• Abstract
• Contents
• Contents list of tables/illustrations
• Introduction
• Literature review
• Method
• Results
• Discussion of results
• Conclusions
• Recommendations
• References
• Bibliography
• Appendices

See resource ‘Research for Beginners’ for more information

• It is a compact version of your whole study/dissertation
• It should tell your reader what they need to know about your study, so that they can decide whether it is relevant
• The abstract or Executive summary should make sense if it is read alone
• It should be brief – you may be given a word count

Possible structure of an abstract:

• Introduction (why you chose this subject, background/context)
• Purpose
• Methods
• Results
• Brief evaluation
• Conclusion

(Adapted from Gillett, Hammond and Martala, 2009, 233)

• Could be part of a bigger project, or a complete essay
• Before undertaking any research, you need to know what is already known or not known around the subject
• This will involve reading and selecting relevant sources to review
• You could also review methods that you wish to use
• You should be able to identify a gap in current knowledge, and explain where your research will fit

Possible structure:

• Introduction (context, importance of subject)
• Background (summary of studies you are including and why you’re including them)
• Evaluation (critical evaluation of the studies)
• Justification (identification of a gap in knowledge that justifies your research)
• Conclusion (summary, how you can attempt to fill the gap with your research)

(Adapted from Gillett, Hammond and Martala, 2009, 226)

Example extract:

“Day begins with an overview of the nature and process of academic writing and argues that writing is vitally important for students because it helps them to remember, to observe and gather evidence, to think, to communicate and most importantly, to learn. He describes how an ‘argument’ is generally a central feature in academic writing and how being critical via analysing, synthesising, applying, and evaluating is an essential skill for developing a well-reasoned argument based on compelling evidence. He defines the academic writing features that assessors value. He identifies four different types of academic writer – diver, patchwork, grand plan and architect – and asks readers to consider the category into which they fall.”

Before you undertake any research, your tutor will ask to see your research proposal

It should outline:

• What you want to study and why
• What you already know about the subject
• How you will complete your research (the methods)
• How you will use the findings
• What literature you might use

Possible structure:

• Title (brief description of area of study)
• Purpose (what do you want to find out?)
• Justification (why is it important?)
• Literature review (what has already been written on the subject?)
• Method (how you will do your research, time-frame)
• Dissemination (how will the findings be used? Evaluation of this use)
• Reading list (references to any sources you might use)

(Adapted from Gillett, Hammond and Martala, 2009, 224)

Example extract:

“Literature Review

• Who cohabits?
• Why do people cohabit?
• Does cohabiting work?

Method

Participants – College students from a large, south-eastern research university in the United States will be surveyed. Demographic information will be collected, and the widest possible diversity is sought. Perceptions about relationships during cohabitation will be assessed using a Likert-type scale; behavioural decisions about cohabitations will be investigated using yes/no questions. Finally, desirability of a partner with various previous cohabitation relationships will be explored using a semantic differential. Participants will not be screened for sexual preference.

Procedure – SurveyMonkey © will be used to create and disseminate surveys.  The survey link will be sent to various student list-servs around campus. Non-college students will be filtered out of the sample.

Survey

• Paper copy is attached
• Survey monkey link:”

• These are more personal than other types of academic writing
• You can use ‘I’ in this type of writing
• You could use a reflective cycle (see example on next slide) to help structure your thoughts
• You are expected to go beyond simply describing a situation, by analysing and applying the theory of your subject

Gibbs’ reflective cycle (1988)

1. Description: What happened?
2. Feelings: What were you thinking and feeling?
3. Evaluation: What was good and bad about the experience?
4. Analysis: What sense can you make of the situation?
5. Analysis: What else could you have done
6. Action plan: If it arose again what would you do?
7. Repeat

Good quality reflection:

• Considers within a time frame
• Is aware of uncertainties
• Speculates on the consequences of actions
• Thinks about and plans for change
• Focuses on one or two events to explore in depth
• Relates to personal development

(Adapted from Hammond, Gillett and Martala, 2009, 167)

Example extract:

“I spent hours and hours getting my head round some of the theory last night ready for today’s lesson.  I kept thinking, how am I going to be a teacher if I’ve got to teach the students to get their head round this and I can’t even do that myself? But it’s strange really because [my mentor] told me that today’s lesson is the best one I’ve done so far. Then I made the connection. Because by having to spend so much time struggling to learn something, I ended up in a better position to teach it because I knew the bits that caused difficulty, and I wouldn’t assume any prior knowledge, so I wouldn’t leave anything out. In terms of planning, I’d thought it would take a lot longer to teach this than it did, and I had time at the end of the lesson to go over it and ask questions.”

For further information, see ‘critical reflection’

Book/article reviews

You could include the following stages:

• What is the text about? Who is it aimed at? What is its purpose?
• What has been written before on this topic?
• What is the content of the text? Summarise
• What are its positive and negative aspects? Compare with other publications
• What are its design features? e.g., font size, production
• Is it appropriate? Make a recommendation

(Adapted from Gillett, Hammond and Martala, 2009, 232)

Other reviews

If you are asked to review a film or other media, you could follow similar stages to the book review, but note the following points:

• You may include details about main characters, music, visual effects, or other specific features
• Summarise the plot but do not give away too much information
• End with a recommendation on who you think it would be suitable for